Flu Vaccines: Technology Developments and Effects

Flu Vaccines: Technology Developments and Effects Flu, also known as Influenza, is a contagious viral disease that affects the respiratory system. It is caused by influenza viruses. It is highly infectious unpredictable disease that spreads though secretions of nose and lungs. Flu causes mild to severe illness and sometimes even leads to death. According to U.S. CDC, in an average year, 5 to 20 percent of the U.S. population gets the flu, more than 200,000 people are hospitalized with seasonal flu-related complications and about 36,000 people die from flu-related causes.  [1]   Flu vaccination is one of the best ways to protect the community from the seasonal and pandemic flu effects. Pandemic flu is different from seasonal flu,  [2]  it is a global disease outbreak that usually occurs when a flu strain new to humans emerges and causes widespread illness. The pandemic flu is very dangerous because of newly originated strain to which humans have little pre-existing immunity and vaccines would probably not be available immediately in early stages of pandemics.2 The pandemic outbreaks have potential impact on society causing high levels of illness, death, economic loss and social disruption. Recently in 2009 a novel H1N1 virus emerged which became pandemic. It is estimated that in U.S., approximately 43-89 million persons became ill because of this pandemic H1N1. It also resulted in deaths among children, adults, pregnant and post-partum women. On the other hand seasonal flu form occurs seasonally, usually in winter. Seasonal flu causes significant illness and in some cases death. Annual vaccination: Flu vaccination is most effective way to control and prevent influenza virus infections and severe complications. It is especially important for younger children and people who are at high risk of catching infections. Flu vaccines are available as Flu shot of trivalent inactivated or killed virus (TIV) or Live Attenuated Influenza Vaccine (LAIV) as nasal spray. However, it is impossible to prevent influenza by one time vaccination because Influenza viruses undergo changes from year to year and develop resistance making previously available vaccines ineffective. Therefore scientists make different flu vaccine every year. In addition the immunity developed from having the flu caused by one strain does not always offer protection against new strain. Immunity also declines over time after previous years vaccination and at a point it may be too low to provide protection after year. Hence to combat with changing influenza viruses, vaccination is done every year. Getting seasonal flu vaccin ation offers protection that lasts throughout the year preventing infection and its complications. Vaccine recommendations: The World Health Organization organizes meetings twice a year and recommends inclusion of specific virus strains in Influenza vaccine based on results of surveillance, laboratory and clinical studies, and the availability of vaccine virus strains. Then individual countries make their own decision about inclusion of virus strains in vaccines licensed in their country. In U.S., each year, a panel of experts from agencies such as the FDA and the CDCs Advisory committee on Immunizations Practices (ACIP) studies the available data and decides which three strains of influenza viruses will most likely be active during the next flu season. The selection of vaccine strains for inclusion in seasonal flu vaccine is based on circulating virus strains, how they are spreading, and how well current vaccine strain protects against newly identified strains.  [3]  The ACIP makes written recommendations for administration of vaccines to children and adults. These recommendations include age for administration, doses, dosing interval, precautions and contraindications.  [4]  The seasonal flu vaccine for 2010-2011 offers protection against H3N2 virus, an influenza B virus and pandemic H1N1 virus that emerged in 2009. Vaccine Shortage Issue: There are many issues related to flu vaccines. Among many vaccine shortage is the most noticed every year. A close examination reveals that the shortage for vaccine is not one cause but several. Some of them include high risk of contamination in vaccine production, unpredictable consumer demand, and low profits along with lack of liability protection from costly lawsuits made many manufacturers out of flu vaccine business.  [5]   Most of the companies stopped production of flu vaccine because the demand varies from year to year, as it is always unpredictable and once flu season passes away the remaining stock is useless because a new vaccine is required to deal with changing strains of virus  [6]. According to 2003 report by Institute of Medicine, a unit of National Academy of Sciences, the companies producing vaccines dropped from 30 to 5 in year 2004.6 The companies producing injectable influenza vaccine dropped to two (Chiron Aventis Pasteur) in year 2005.5 Production of flu virus vaccine is very complicated and expensive, but the government keeps price of flu vaccine low. Among the two firms Chiron was forced to shut down its UK plant because of quality control reasons. This resulted in shortage. Another problem is that each year, the U.S. Food and Drug Administrations Vaccines and Related Biological Products Advisory Committee meets in spring identifies the flu virus strains to be protected by flu vac cine manufactured for that fall-winter flu season.5 This time gap between committees decision and following flu season allows manufactures to make vaccines but the flu strains can undergo changes by the time vaccines are manufactured for flu season. Thus it is difficult to determine for what strains of flu virus vaccine should be made which may end up with vaccine shortage for specific flu season. In 2003 committee voted to include the Panama flu virus in vaccine for the 2003-04 flu seasons, excluding Fujian flu mutant virus, a more virulent but less prevalent at that time. But the winters flu outbreak consisted almost entirely of the Fujian strain. CDC without noticing it recommended widespread vaccination which did not protect the public against the prevalent flu strain. The CDC later admitted the vaccine had no or low effectiveness against ILI (influenza-like illness). Latest development in flu vaccine research: The outbreak of pandemic flu has motivated increase in flu research The recent advancement in field of flu vaccine research is development of Universal flu vaccines. Scientist Dr. Sarah Gilbert and team at Oxford Jenner Institute developed universal flu vaccine that target proteins inside flu that are common across all strains and tested on humans infected with flu  [7]. Gilbert used 11 healthy volunteers for her study and vaccinated and then infected them along with 11 non-vaccinated volunteers. Upon careful monitoring there has been dramatic increase in T-cell count in vaccinated subjects which play important role in producing immune response, protecting against viral infections. Researchers of University of Adelaide, Dr. Darren Miller and his colleagues, have trialled a universal synthetic flu vaccine in mice which is another step closer to development of a universal flu vaccine. It is derived synthetically which does not require annual reformulation which would be advantageous to control and prevent flu. Dr. Miller used specific peptides derived from noses of mice to trigger an immune response to a tiny region of flu virus that is present in all influenza A and B viruses, which effectively neutralizes the virus.  [8]   The studies have shown that test vaccine provided mice with 100% protection against a laboratory strain of H3N2 and 20% protection against a highly pathogenic bird flu virus.8 This positive response provides scope for further laboratory and clinical testing. Economics of Flu vaccination: Economic studies indicate that flu vaccination reduces healthcare, societal, and individual costs and also productive losses associated with influenza illness.  [9]  A study of a larger population comparing persons aged 5064 years with those aged à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥65 years estimated the cost-effectiveness of influenza vaccination to be $28,000 per QALY saved (in 2000 dollars) in persons aged 5064 years compared with $980 per QALY saved among persons aged à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥65 years (393).Two studies in the United States indicated that vaccination can reduce both direct medical costs and indirect costs from work absenteeism and reduced productivity (79,394). Latest flu pandemics and their effect on the Regulatory world: The pandemic flu is unpredictable, spreads rapidly world wide affecting large proportions of the human population. There have been three influenza pandemics of which the recent one was the 2009 flu pandemic. This occurred first in Mexico, March 2009 caused by pandemic H1N1/09 virus also referred to as swine flu. It is subtype of Influenza A virus. On 10th of August 2010, the Director General of WHO announced that H1N1 pandemic virus has moved into post-pandemic period.  [10]  CDC estimated that nearly a 1 million cases of 2009 H1N1 pandemic flu had occurred in United States. The pandemic H1N1 flu cases doubled in many countries from mid-June 2009 to early July 2009. According to WHO statistics, 18,000 deaths were reported because of H1N1. This outbreak resulted in extraordinary illness throughout the world with increased demand for vaccination against the swine flu virus in a short time. The pandemics put intense burden on the regulatory authorities as vaccines have to be made available globally to meet the increased demands. Regulatory agencies adopted procedures for accelerated approval of vaccines against swine flu. In U.S., FDA expanded its capacity to expedite development, evaluation and licensing of additional flu vaccines and manufacturing facilities to meet pandemic preparedness needs  [11]. CBER has issued guidelines encouraging vaccine manufacturers to explore cell-culture and recombinant techniques, and to incorporate biological integrators, such as immune response, into their product-development designs.  [12]  The outbreak of pandemic flu also has increased collaboration among foreign regulatory agencies to share vaccine safety information and experiences and mount a coordinated response to the emer gency. Beta Lactam Antibiotics: Examples and Uses Beta Lactam Antibiotics: Examples and Uses The beta-lactam antibiotics for their extensive scale of actions are preferred most among antimicrobial factors. The penicillins and cephalosporins are the two categories of this ÃŽ ² lactam antibodies that are extraordinarily less toxic to organisms.(1) At present ,the ÃŽ ²-lactam groups of antibiotics are the highest frequently used universal antibiotics .(2) Cellular membrane of most bacteria enclosed by a cell wall but an extra outermost layer seen on some of them. The periplasmic space in gram negative bacteria is the cavity in the middle of the cell membrane and the cell wall. Periplasm instead of a clearly defined periplasmic space is retained by most gram positive bacteria .(3) But peptidoglycan is the greatest significant element of the cell wall that linked as a new cell by way of the metabolic absorption in periplasm is a polymer made of N-acetyl muramic acid alternating with N-acetyl glucosamine.Arises of the bacterial cell that is actually a process of peptidoglycan synthesis where accumulation of 5 amino acids to N-acetyl muramic acid is one of the leading phases. A precursor of peptidoglycan that conducted by a cell wall acceptor crossway the cell membrane in the periplasm and developed by linking N-acetyl glucosamine to the N-acetyl muramic acid . Generous crosslinking occurs for two key enzymes (trans peptidase and D-alanyl carboxypeptidase) and for the capacity to bind penicillins and cephalosporins, they are recognized as the penicillin binding proteins. B4 Development of cell wall by cross linking of a number of films of peptidoglycan grounds numerous layers and a much denser cell wall in gram positive bacteria than gram negative bacteria. Beta-lactam ring attach enzymes to cross-link peptidoglycans, that is a chemical structure which is available in the beta-lactam antibiotics consist of all penicillins and cephalosporins. Synthesis of bacterial cell wall is prevented by the affect of beta-lactam when transpeptidase and D-alanyl carboxypeptidase enzymes are attaching there by means of cross-linking and cause deterioration of bacterial cell wall.b5 As a bactericidal agents the antibiotic-penicillin binding protein complex of beta-lactam antibiotics excites autolysin discharge that have the capability of digest cell wall that left after bursting a cell. Generally, excessive inner osmotic pressure possessed by gram positive bacteria and in a low osmotic pressure enclosed atmosphere , cells those are lack of a usual and rigid cell wall are burst out.b6 There are many different types of methods of that bacteria became reistance to beta-lactam antibiotics. Transformation is one of the most important mechanisms among them and in the mean time of this process transfer of chromosomal genes between bacterium happens. Due to the death of a a resistance gene in a bacterium releasing of naked DNA in surrounding environment happens. a process known as homologous transformation and by this method the resistance gene in the host bacteria transferred from the naked DNA to the chromosome. the segment of the host DNA have been remodelled by resistance genes results altered penicillin binding proteins production by coding for cross-linking enzymes. But still cross linking of the peptidoglycan layers of the cell wall happens due to these altered penicillin binding proteins and reduces affinity for beta-lactam antibiotics and the bacterium became resistance. In penicillin-resistant S. pneumonia, this process caused the acquirement of genes from othe r naturally arising penicillin-resistant Streptococcus species. Bacteria grow into resistant to beta-lactam antibiotics by one more significant system is by the construction of enzymes capable of deactivating or altering the drug formerly it has a chance to apply its outcome on the bacteria.   peni The first human gammaretrovirus that is Xenotropic murine leukemia virus-related virus (XMRV) and responsible for chronic fatigue syndrome and prostate cancer (PC) have been revealed in recent times. Gammaretroviruses family is famous for their capability to activate cancer in the infested hosts. Analyzing study showed that vaccine-induced XMRV Env -specific binding and neutralizing antibodies (NAb) titers had limited span but highly changeable. in antibody levels, the different incidence stated for XMRV in a number of prostate cancer and chronic fatigue syndrome cohorts can be explained by the reasonably fast diminution . (2) Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) have exceptional therapeutic applications in ophthalmology and can be used therapeutically by binding to molecular objects with high specificity. Tumour necrosis factor (TNF), epithelial growth factor receptor, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) receptor, basic fibroblast growth factor receptor, platelet-derived growth factor, and cluster of differentiation antigens repressed by a number of single-agent therapies. Existing and future mAbs in contrast to different cytokines were evaluated for ocular disease treatment and two anti-VEGF mAbs( bevacizumab and ranibizumab), and three anti-TNF agents (infliximab, etanercept, and adalimumab), instruct ocular neovascularization and intraocular inflammation. Other mAbs showed positive results for ocular lymphoma or ocular inflammation but Ranibizumab is the only FDA-approved therapy. Intravenous application of mAbs has established satisfactory toxicity profiles, while intraocular injection may decrease the chances of systemic complications . To develop the excellence and extent of responses is the challenge for the future by merging biologic therapies while lessening side effects. 2i Leading causes of death in the world for coronary syndromes, stroke and other ischaemic arterial diseases . Therapy involves with medical actions correlating thrombolysis, antiplatelet drugs, and the re-opening of the coronary artery by angioplasty. In ischaemic cardiovascular diseases, platelet initiation is a acute phase . Chimeric Fab, c7E3 or abciximab is the only one recombinant antithrombotic antibody currently used in therapy and obstructs the ultimate phase of platelet aggregation. Subendothelium matrix activation by other platelet receptors have been recognized as prospective targets for the improvement of antithrombotic antibodies .2ii In drug development, insulin-like growth factor receptor I (IGF-IR) is becoming an attractive target. IGF-IR owed confined homology to insulin receptor and its specificity permits to distinguish between the two receptors. Recently there are some ongoing on IGF-IR and ongoing clinical trials on anti-IGF-IR monoclonal antibodies and combined treatments. 2iii

Bangladesh’s National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) Essay

Due to Bangladesh’s extreme vulnerability to climate related impacts, adaptation is necessary for the political and economic survival of the country (Ali, 1999; Sajjaduzzaman et al, 2005). Since developing countries have been historically less responsible for the emissions that cause climate change, it is the responsibility of developed countries to finance the cost of adaptation in addition to development aid commitments (Article 4.4 UNFCCC, 1992). To this end, the United Nations Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) provides support for adaptation under a global governance system, and has made National Adaptation Programs of Action (NAPA) a requirement for all Least Developed Countries (LDCs) in order to provide the space for participatory approaches and community-level inputs in adaptation policy-making (Ayers et al, 2009). Here, the rationale is that the impacts of climate change are experienced locally, so adaptation programs need to be formulated and implemented at the local level (Ayers 2011). The Least Developed Countries Expert Group (LEG) affirms that â€Å"†¦ early engagement of people at the grassroots level will be important in ensuring successful implementation of NAPA initiatives† (LEG, 2002:2). The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF), together with the United Nations Development Program and the Global Environment Facility, has provided funding for its highest priority NAPA project: a $10.8 billion Coastal Afforestation project (20102013) which aims to reduce â€Å"†¦ climate  change hazards through coastal afforestation with community participation† in the coastal districts of Barguna and Patuakhali (Western Region), Chittagong (Eastern Region), Bhola, and Noakhali (Central Region) (Figure 1) (Ministry Of Environment and Forestry (MOEF, 2005:24). Bangladesh is  one of the first countries to implement a community-based adaptation (CBA) project as part of its NAPA, and intends on using this project as a template for other vulnerable regions in Bangladesh (MOEF, 2008). Before this project is used as a template, it is important to analyse its effectiveness. This report will explore the role of the UNFCCC’s NAPA scheme in supporting or hindering a participatory approach to adaptation in Bangladesh’s CBA coastal afforestation project. Specifically, the focus question will be whether the coastal afforestation project is effective in facilitating adaptation at the grassroots level. BACKGROUND The Bangladesh NAPA identifies coastal communities as being the most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, and proposes 15 projects that would meet their â€Å"urgent and immediate adaptation needs† (MOEF, 2005:4). The vulnerability of coastal communities in Bangladesh is also emphasised in the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2001). Coastal zones are the highest priority sector in the NAPA due to the importance of the economic resources being affected, the urgency, severity and certainty of severe climate change impacts, and because coastal areas comprise 32% of the countries land space, with over 35 million people living just 1m above sea level (Agrawala et al, 2003). Bangladesh’s flat deltaic topography with low elevation and its geographical location that sits at the intersection of three river basins puts it at risk of flooding and tidal inundation, droughts, tropical cyclones and storm surges (Rawlani and Sovacool, 2011). In addition, Bangladesh is exposed to impacts from the melting of the Indian and Himalayan glaciers (Rawlani and Sovacool, 2011). These factors combined mean that every area in Bangladesh is prone to four types of floods- flash floods, riverine floods, rain floods, and storm surge floods (Figure 2) (Mirza, 2002). Furthermore, all sectors and regions of  Bangladesh are vulnerable the impacts of climate change (Figure 3) (Rawlani and Sovacool, 2011). The sites for the coastal afforestation project were selected based on their extreme vulnerability to climate change impacts (MOEF 2008). METHODOLOGY Adaptation refers to adjustments in ecological, social and economic systems in response to the impacts of climate change (IPCC, 2007). Whereas adaptive capacity is the ability of a system to adjust to the impacts of climate change- to moderate potential damages, take advantage of opportunities, or cope with the consequences, resilience goes further to include the degree the system is capable of selforganisation, and able to learn and adapt to changes (Folke, 2006; Jerneck and Olsen, 2008; Magis, 2010). For this reason, a resilience framework with the following criteria will be used to analyse the effectiveness of the coastal afforestation project: Diversity in adaptation approaches involving a mix of technological, ecosystem based, governance and behavioural adaptation approaches. Effective governance and institutions that are seen as legitimate are critical for delivering sustainable adaptation outcomes (Bahadur et al, 2013). This is because they can facilitate learning and â€Å"experiment in safe ways, monitor results, update assessments, and modify policy as new  knowledge is gained† (Carpenter et al, 2001:778). Preparedness and planning requires relevant and timely information, and integration with existing institutional processes (Bahadur et al, 2013). An acceptance of uncertainty and change at all scales- individual, organisational and systemic- to adjust adaptation actions to changing circumstances so that co-benefits can be realised and perverse outcomes avoided (Bahadur et al, 2013). The level of community involvement and ownership is essential as to ensuring projects reach the most vulnerable (Bahadur et al, 2013). This is a key factor in reducing vulnerability to climate change under CBA (Pouliotte et al, 2009). Mainstreaming climate change into development planning to achieve climate resilient development is necessary for reducing vulnerability to climate change (Bahadur et al, 2013:55). COMPARISON The NAPA project demonstrates systems thinking by a willingness to learn from past policy mistakes. The Forestry Department has adopted a more participatory approach to forest management due to criticisms that past projects resulted in overharvesting and overgrazing due to a lack of community ownership over coastal mangroves (Rawlani and Sovacool, 2011). Since the1980s, rising poverty and population growth combined with an  absence of land-use policies has resulted in a loss of over 40,000 ha of forests along the eastern and central coasts of Bangladesh due to clearing for agriculture, shrimp farming, salt pan and settlements (MOEF, 2008). The project document reviews these past issues and has put in place measures for livelihood diversification so that natural resources are not exploited (MOEF, 2008). The project aims to diversify livelihoods through its â€Å"triple f† model of â€Å"Forest, Fish, and Food†, which integrates aquaculture and food production within the afforested and reforested plantations so that community income sources are diversified (Sovacool et al, 2012). The FFF model currently focuses on drought and flood resistance fruit and vegetable crops. Through a combination of agriculture, fishing and producing palm oil the project has so far provided an income stream for 1,150 families and community training on nursery and plantation management to 12,200 coastal people (Rawlani and Sovacool, 2011). However, as one local states, â€Å"we have developed saline tolerant crop varieties but the concentration of salinity is going up. We cant keep on producing crops when land is flooded and water salty†¦ Adaptation has its limits† (Rawlani and Sovacool, 2011: 860). Evidently, the FFF model fails to encourage a diversity of livelihood options, and thus equip locals with the adaptive capacity to adjust adaptation actions to changing circumstances. By contrast, an NGO in the village of Subarnabad- the Institute of Development Education for Advancement of Landless (IDEAL)- has implemented a CBA project that allows the community to choose their own livelihood options (Figure 5), thus giving them full ownership and providing a range of options so that they can adjust their income streams if circumstances change. The climate impacts emphasised by the NAPA project correlate with community responses recorded in an independent household survey in one of the target sites, the Noakhali village (Figure 4) (Ayers, 2011). However, the adaptation options listed by respondents focused on addressing systemic issues like lack of access to  government services and NGOs, high poverty rates, low social mobilisation, low literacy rates and insecure land tenure (Ayers, 2011). Coastal afforestation was never raised as a priority adaptation option (Ayers,  2011). The project has sponsored 6000ha of community-based mangrove plantations, 500ha of non-mangrove mount plantations, 220ha of dykes, 1000km of embankments, and building sea gates to prevent salt water intrusion into rivers (Sovacool et al, 2012). These initiatives reveal the project’s focus on reducing the physical exposure to climate change impacts (Ayers, 2011). However, respondents in Noakhali framed risk in terms of addressing development issues that cause vulnerabilities to climate change impacts in the first place (Ayers, 2011). One example is the project’s introduction of early warning information and disaster preparedness systems in 20 of the most vulnerable towns (MOEF, 2008). In discussions about the risks of cyclones and storms with fishermen in Noakhali, they revealed that information provision was not the problem- radios had already been provided by a local Red Crescent program, but financial pressure to pay back the loans meant that fisherman would ignore the bad weather warnings (Ayers, 2011). Therefore the preferable adaptation option here would be putting in place a better micro-credit system. This case illustrates the importance of addressing the underlying issues that expose vulnerable groups to climate change impacts. It also shows that a lack of coordination between government and existing institutions can waste funding and exacerbate vulnerabilities. Therefore, community involvement in identifying vulnerabilities and adaptation responses is essential to building resilience on the ground. DISCUSSION A lack of community involvement and ownership over the implementation of the project can be attributed to the NAPA preparation process. The process involved consultation with local level stakeholders- representatives from local government, local NGOs, farmers and women- through regional consultation workshops (Ayers, 2011). However, power dynamics within communities meant that politically powerful stakeholders dominated the discussions to the exclusion of less powerful stakeholders- basically, the most vulnerable were not involved in the NAPA preparation process (Ayers, 2011). Furthermore, the participation of local stakeholders focused on prioritising pre-identified adaptation options (Ayers, 2011). This ‘top down’ approach combined with the framing of ‘risks’ as climate  change impacts rather than vulnerabilities explains why the adaptation options in the NAPA conflict with those prioritised by the targeted communities (Ayers, 2011). This is due to a global framework of adaptation that â€Å"†¦ casts adaptation as a response to the ‘additional’ impacts of climate change†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ â€Å"rather than the factors that make people vulnerable to these changes (which are often closely connected to existing development needs and problems)† (Ayers, 2011:63). The LEG (2002) guidelines stress the importance of â€Å"bottom-up, participatory approaches† (2) to adaptation and the NAPA project emphasises â€Å"the participation of men and women at the grassroots- level†(MOEF, 2008:22), so what institutional approach is needed to meet these ends? Ayers et al (2009) suggest reframing the adaptation discourse under the UNFCCC in terms of vulnerability instead of impacts, as this would allow vulnerable communities to identify, prioritise and implement climate resilient development activities and thus operationalize CBA. CBA requires an engagement with local institutional structures-be it public, private or civil societyfrom the beginning of the NAPA development process- to ascertain which institutions or features of institutions are needed for climate resilient development in that particular context (Ayers et al, 2010).  In practise, this means more coordination between the government of Bangladesh and local institutions to develo p mechanisms for mainstreaming climate resilient development. Opportunities for collaboration already exist in Bangladesh, but need to be harnessed. For example, the NGO IDEAL has successfully implemented CBA in the South-Western village of Subarnabad by providing training and technical support as well as access to loans and a savings bank to adopt new livelihoods strategies of their choosing to suit their situation (Pouliotte, 2009) (Figure 5). In turn, this has had a mobilising effect on the community, which can be seen in the strategies being employed without the help of the NGO- by learning from neighbours and building networks (Pouliotte, 2009). The effect of this project in reducing vulnerabilities by diversifying livelihood options shows that climate change adaptation activities need to be built into community driven development programs. Another NGO in Bangladesh, The Arsenic Mitigation and Research Foundation (AMRF), has facilitated the establishment of ‘Village Committees’ made up of women in arsenic-affected  villages who collect 3 Dhakas from each resident per month and lobby local government for funding to not only operate and maintain the deep tube wells, but also encourage activities in other sectors like education, sanitation, and village infrastructure (Rammelt et al, 2011). These committees have the funding, lobbying power, and legitimacy to potentially carry out climate resilience development programs as well. A barrier for LDCs to mainstreaming climate change into development planning is the funding issue of ‘additionality’. This is why deepening community involvement through community-based organisations- in collaboration with government- is the institutional approach needed to carry out climate resilient development. CONCLUSION Although the NAPA project in Bangladesh reflects community perceptions on the impacts of climate change, vulnerable communities were given little opportunity to identify and address the underlying development issues that cause vulnerability to such impacts (Ayers, 2011). This exposes the problem with facilitating CBA within the confines of impacts-based adaptation policy-making under the UNFCCC. Therefore a new framework is needed that defines adaptation more broadly; that addresses the drivers of vulnerability, and recognises that â€Å"development is risk management†Ã‚  (Commission on Climate Change and Development, 2009: 9). APPENDIX Figure 1 Source: MOEF 2008:4 Figure 2 Source: Mirza et al, 2003:48 Figure 3 Source: Rawlani and Savacool, 2011:863 Figure 4 Source: Ayers, 2011:74 Figure 5 Source: Pouliotte et al, 2009:42 Reference list Ali, A (1999) Climate change impacts and adaptation assessment in Bangladesh, Climate Research, 12: 109-116 Agrawala, S, Ota, T, Ahmed, A.U, Smith, J, van Aalst, M (2003) Development and climate change in Bangladesh: focus on coastal flooding and the Sundarbans, OECD, Paris Available at: http://www.oecd.org/env/cc/21055658.pdf Accessed: 25 July, 2013 Agrawal, A (2008) The role of local institutions in adaptation to climate change, Social Development Department, World Bank, Washington, March Available at: http://www.icarus.info/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/agrawal- adaptation-institutions-livelihoods.pdf Accessed: 25 July, 2013 Ayers, J (2011) Resolving the adaptation paradox: exploring the potential for deliberative policy-making in Bangladesh, Global Environmental Politics, 11(1): 62-89 Ayers, J, Dodman, D (2010) Climate change adaptation and development: the state of the debate, Progress in Development Studies, 27 (6):161-168 Ayers, J, Huq, S (2009) Supporting adaptation through development: what role for ODA? Development Policy Review, 27 (6): 659-784 Bahadur, A.V, Ibrahim, M, Tanner, T (2013) Characterizing resilience: unpacking the concept for tackling climate change and development, Climate and Development, 5 (1):55-65 Commission on Climate Change and Development (2009) The human dimension of climate adaptation: the importance of local and institutional issues, April Available at: http://www.ccdcommission.org/Filer/report/HUMAN_DIMENSIONS.pdf Accessed: 26 July, 2013 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2007b, Australia and New Zealand. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Available at: http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/contents.html Accessed: 15 July, 2013 IPCC (2001) The Science of Climate Change, Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change, Available at: http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_and_data_reports.shtml#. Ufpg2T89UN Accessed: 26 July, 2013 Folke, C (2006) Resilience: the emergence of a perspective for social-ecological systems analyses, Global Environmental Change, 16(3):253-267 Jerneck, A, Olsson, L (2008) Adaptation and the poor: development, resilience and transition, Climate Policy 8, 170-182 Magis, K (2010) Community resilience: an indicator of social sustainability, Society and Natural Resources, 23:401-416 Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF) (2005), National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA), Bangladesh Available at: http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/napa/ban01.pdf Accessed: 20 July, 2013 Ministry of Environment and Forests (2008) Community- based adaptation to climate change through costal afforestation in Bangladesh, Bangladesh Mirza, N.M.Q, (2002) Global warming and changes in the probability of occurrences of floods in Bangladesh and implications, Global Environment and Change, 12:127138 Pouliotte, J, Smit, B, Westerhoff, L (2009) Adaptation and development: livlihoods and climate change in Subarnabad, Bangladesh, Climate and Development, 1:31-46 Rammelt, C, Masud, Z.MD, Boes, J, Masud, F, Masud, A (2011) Beyond medical treatment, arsenic poisoning in rural Bangladesh, Social Medicine, 6(1): 22-30 Rawlani, A.K, Savacool, B.K (2011) Building responsiveness to climate change through community based adaptation in Bangladesh, Mitigation and Adaptation strategies for global change, 16:845-863 Sajjaduzzaman M.M, Koike, N (2005) Mangrove plantation destruction in Noakhali Coastal Forests in Bangladesh: a case study on causes, consequences, and model prescription to halt deforestation, International Journal of Agriculture and Biology 7 (5):732-734 Sovacool, B.K, D’Agostino, A.L, Meenawat, H, Rawlani, A (2012) Expert views of climate change adaptation in least developed Asia, Journal of Environmental Management, 97:78-88 Sovacool, B.K, D’Agostino,A.L, Rawlani, A, Meenawat, H (2012) Improving climate change adaptation in least developed Asia, Environmental Science and Policy, 21:112-125 UNFCCC/LEG (Least Developed Countries Expert Group) (2002) Annotated guidelines for the preparation of National Adaptation Programs of Action (NAPA), Bonn, July Available at http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/publications/annguid_e.pdf Accessed: 25 July, 2013 UNFCCC(1992) The United Nations Convention on Climate Change Available at: http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/conveng.pdf Accessed: 24 July 2013

The Quintessential Handbook to Topics for Personal Reflective Essay

The Quintessential Handbook to Topics for Personal Reflective Essay What Topics for Personal Reflective Essay Is - and What it Is Not The important thing is to make your essay actually reflective and the secret to achieving that is to place your own personality within it. After you've completed the draft, you will need to review and edit it so that the last result is a draft which is as flawless as possible. If you should describe your experience, utilize the spreadsheet that will contain info about experience, basic description, and your private opinion about it. A suitable start sufficiently increases your likelihood of success. Students may purchase a custom made reflection essay to find rid of their homework problems at once move to the academic writing website to complete the purchase form now! For instance, a nursing student may want to go over the overreliance on medical journals in the business and why peer-reviewed journals caused mistaken info. Choosing only the appropriate reflective essay topic can be challenging, but here are some guidelines to assist you in that practice. Essays, generally speaking, covers different topics. Even if you're taught how to compose the reflective essay, you might not be in a position to get a relevant and intriguing topic. A reflective essay is one which explores someone's individual insight on a specific topic. Share what you consider the topic. Topics differ according to the specific discipline you study. For the experiential, however, you likely have to locate a topic by yourself. Key Pieces of Topics for Personal Reflective Essay At exactly the same time, one-of-a-kind events or experiences are also rather very likely to create excellent topics. You just have to share an experience. You may want to draw on a couple of specific experiences to assist you with your description. You might have to return to your prior life experiences and provide a very clear account of a specific event, happening or feeling. There are many things it's possible to write a reflective essay about. The first consideration to help write an excellent reflective essay is to earn an outline. The very first step to writing a reflective essay is to make a plan so you may end up with a well-organized essay. In general, it does not differ from any other type of paper. Handmade Writing is here to aid you! Writing a reflective article isn't much different than writing other forms of essays say personal pieces. An essay writer should begin with answering quite a few questions to find an appropriate direction when composing a reflective essay. Nevertheless, you might not have all the details to create the story full. It's quite possible an illustration essay might assist you. For example, an illustration essay might arrive in handy. Normally a reflective essay is limited to 400-600 words, which means you should put all your thoughts into a limited quantity of symbols. Give a brief summary of the experience you're reflecting on in a means that will leave a reader hungry for what's in the remainder of the essay. Thus, you have a trusted supply of writing wisdom round-the-clock. Writing a great hook means simply catching the interest of the reader. Use a first-person narrative as it is more suitable to reach a personal, reflective tone. Since you may see, the notion of the way to compose a reflection essay is versatile and can be taken care of in a large number of scenarios. The essa y is composed of your own personal views on the topic and an explanation of your position. It should strive to achieve a balance between description and personal feelings. To be requested to write something personal is like being requested to compose a confessional that's a tad naughty. Next, the author should remind readers of the chief points within the body. You are going to want to let your reader relive the experience so that it is possible to find a concept of what you went through. Such sort of essay writing requires to receive concentrated on the intense inner emotions rather than focusing on a function. Keep in mind that the essay should give readers a glimpse into your nature and ability to handle and adapt to various conditions. A reflection essay is most likely one of the simplest to write because it isn't about facts but about your experience or thoughts. Reflective essay writing takes events and things that happened before and puts them in a special perspective.

Discuss the Role and Impact of Tncs in the Global Economy...

Discuss the role and impacts of TNC’s in the global economy. (40 marks) Transnational Corporations (TNC’s) play a large role in the development of the global economy, through the sharing of research, trade and technological advances between the different countries. They also play a big part in increasing the interconnection in the world’s economic, cultural and political systems, otherwise known as globalisation. Nevertheless there are both positive and negative impacts that TNC’s bring to the global economy, socially, economically, politically and culturally. The world has seen a huge rise in the number of Transnational Corporations. Since the 1970s the number of TNCs has risen from 7,000 to over 60,000. To begin with, around 95%†¦show more content†¦The development gap is also widened as workers in the developing world are paid less to make the same products or provide the same service. For example, BT, a company that has operations in around 170 countries, has shifted their customer call service from India to the UK. The exploitation of cheap labour has had both positive and negative impacts. 5,000 people that BT has employed in India have not only been supplied with a job but also with invaluable skills. The money that they earn would contribute to the family income, boosting the standard of living for both the employees and the employees’ family. The TNC is also puts money into the Indian economy, contributing to economic growth and boosting the countries GDP. Many countries (including India and Brazil) which were classified as developing countries, have become newly industrialised countries (NICs). Nevertheless exploitation can occur as wages are set at very low levels and therefore the wealth has been shifted from the 5,000 people that would have been employed in the UK to the shareholders of the company through additional profit made from the competitively low wages paid to the workers. There is also the question that many pose; are TNCs corrupting local cultures around the world? Montenegro is an example of a country that has banned TNCs such as McDonalds to push back against globalization. They believed that big global companies were dominating theirShow MoreRelatedNics Have Been and Continue to Be the Driving Force of Globalisation. Discuss.1487 Words   |  6 PagesNICs have been and continue to be the driving force of globalisation. Discuss. An NIC stands for a Newly Industrialised Country. It is a term used to describe a country that has moved away from an agriculture-based economy and into a more industrialised, urban economy. These countries have a high growth rate. 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